Rungus Language

By, T. A. forschner, 1994 KUDAT

Outline of a grammar in the  R U N G U S -dialect

Introduction:

O.1 The Rungus people live on the Kudat and Bengkoka-Peninsulas which are farthest north of Sabah, one of the states of the Federation of Malaysia. The Rungus belong to the group of tribes, were generally known under the name Dusun. This name however is a Malay word meaning 'jungle'-people in this usage. They call themselves MOMOGUN, i.e. people who make 'pogun ' a deserted dwelling place. POMOGUNAN is the place, where all this takes place = village, country, land, earth.

O.2 This outline has been prepared for a comparison with other dialects of this group. It does not claim to comprise all morphological and phrasological possibilities.

1.O P H O N O L O G Y 
1.       The alphabet

1.11      The phonemes

a, b, d, e, g, h, i, k, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u, v, y, z, ng, ds, dz,'

1.12      Description and place of occurance of the phonemes.

		i = initial		m = medial	f = final
p		vl.	bilabial plosive		i.	pampang	rock
					m.	pampang	rock
					f.	sabap	eason
b  vd. bilabial plosive					i.	babo'	carry, to
					m.	babo'	carry, to
					f.	rontob	boundary
t	vl. alveolar plosive				i.	tambang	deer
					m.	antad	origin
d					f.	ambat	answer,to
		vd. alveolar plosive			i.	duat	ask, to
					m.	kodim	call,to
					f.	antad	origin
k		vl.	postpalatal plosive		i.	kodim	call, to
					m.	rikot	come, to
					f.	koritik	knock, to
g		vd.	postpalatal plosive		i.	gulu'	call, to
					m	logod	spring
					1.	bozig	squirrel
m  vd.			bilabial nasal		i.	malan	lazy
					m.	samung	counter, to
					f	olim	to be quiet about
n		vd	alveolar nasal		i.	nizu'	coconut
					m	suni'	shoot
					f.	sa'an	shoulder, to
ng		vd. postpalatal nasal			i.	ngaran	name

			m.			bongut	voice
			f.			birang	sort, to
v	vl.	labio-dental fricative		i.		valai	house
			m.			avi'	end, to
			f.			nizuv	coconut
	stem final, if suffixed					votuvon (vatu')   weave, to
s	vl. alveolar fricative		i			sa'an	shoulder
			m.			aso'	none
			f.			langkas	speed
z	vd	alveolar fricative	i.			zami'	cold
			m.			nizu'	coconut
stem final if suffixed						kavavalazan	buildings
ds vl alveolar-palatal affricative m. podsu							bath, to
dz vd alveolar palatal affricative					i. dzupu  forge,to
			m.			sudzul	push, to
j	vd postpalatal affricative i					janji	agreement
			m.			balanja	livelihood
ll	vd alveolar lateral		i.			langkas	speed
			m.			talaga	water-hole
			f.			sopol	cut down to root
r	vd postpalatal lateral/ vibrated
			i.			radu'	plough
	/l/ stem final if suffixed		m.			boros	speech
						habarai	tell news!
h	vl postpalatal fricative		i.			hubang	overgrown
			m.			vahat	beam of roof
	if suffixed		stem f.			kovosihan (vasi') goodness

'     'glottal stop see 1.13

i        high closed unrounded front vowel

	i..	idu	away
	m.	rikot	come,to
	f.	badi'	market
		valai	house
		ioku'	I
e	mid half closed front vowel, only as contraction  of a+i			or o+i
	o+idu' = edu'		taken away
	a+i =	va'ig = ovegan	watered (water)
a	low open central vowel	bala'	really
o	mid half closed central vowel orongod		suitable

	u	high closed rounded back vowel i. uli		back
		m.	hubang	overgrown
		f.	radu’	plough
1.13	Glottal stop
1.131		stem initial glottal stop is not written, as it occurs with any stem which has not an initial
		consonant.

1.132 stem final glottal stop stands in the unsuffixed forms in place of a group of consonants. Only the suffixed forms reveal these consonants.

a) stems which have an 'a' or 'o' as ultima vowel retain the glottal stop in the suffixed forms

ogusa'	chased	gusa'on	chasing
nakada'	thrown away	pada'on	throwing away
ahago'	speedy	hogo'on	hurrying
agazo'	big	gozo'on	enlarging

b) stems which have 'i' or 'u' as ultima vowel, followed by a final glottal stop, have in the suffixed forms the following consonants in place of the stem final glottal stop.

stem final z

	ogili'		put down		gilizon		putting down
	ajadi'		happened		jodizon		happening
	sasi'		witness		pososizon		witnessing
stem final v			mamatu'	to weave	mats	votuvon weaving mats
	ogulu'		first		poguluvon		putting first
	oguru'		magic		poguruvon		getting magic power
	radu'		plough		roduvon		ploughing
stem final		h	ontolu'		testicles		ontoluhan castrated
	vasi'		beauty		kovosihan		goodness
glottal stop retained
	avi'		finish		ovi'on		finishing
	gobu'		clearing for maize		gobu'on		making a clea ring for maize
	vatu'		stone		kovotuan		stone ground
	ontolu'		egg		pogontoluan		breeding place
1.14	non syllabic vowels

The non-syllabic stem final vowels following a syllabic vowel show in the suffixed forms the full consonant value.

1.141    the pronounciation of these vowels clusters (i.e.a non-syllabic vowel following a syllabic

vowel at stem ultima)
au as the English	how	asalau	thick
ou as the English		dau	his (hers,its)
	sew	tokou	we (inclusiv)
oi as the English	oil	iokoi	we (exclusiv)
ai as the English	why	valai	house
		dahai	ours (i)

ui as the German		Luise	olungui		depressed
			olumpatiu		upside down
1.142 in the suffixed forms the non-syllabic u  becomes				h,	i  becomes	z
asalau	thick		pasalahon		make thicker
adau	day		inadahan		days (past)
osilou	yellow		pilohon		make yellow
razou	praised		rozohon		to be praised
ongoi	to fetch		ongozon-ku		the one I am fetching
oroloi	wanting		rolozon		the one wanted
valai	house		kavavalazan		buildings
olungui	depressed		lunguzon-ku		my getting depressed

1.2O  The contraction of vowels

Vowel clusters, caused by affixation tend to contract to one vowel. Only in emphasized speech the original vowels are retained.

1.21      contraction of  a + i = e  and o + i = e

the qualifying prefix o   var. a - becomes   e- , when prefixed to i- initial stem

ilo	to know	o+	ilo    = elo	known
ikum	to be shy	o+   ikum  = ekum		shy
ingin	to wish	o+	ingin = engin	wanting
imot	to see	o+	imot   = emot	visible
the verbal prefixes ma-, pa-ka-, var.mo-, po-, ko-  + stem with initial i-vowel contract
imot	to see	memot it ulun		the person sees
pemot it ulun		he person shows
kemot it ulun		the p.is visible

note: the nominal affix combination ka + stem-an, var. ko+stem-an contract with i-initial stem to ke+stem-an

	ingin		to wish				kenginan	will
	imot		to see				kematan	sight
1.22   contraction of final vowel of plural prefix with the initial vowel of the stem
	o + u = u		ongulun			people
	a + a = a		anganak			children
	o + o = o		ongobpinai			brothers (sisters)
	o + i = e		ongedi		mothers
but emphasized			ongo'ulun			people	ongo'anak	children ongo'obpinai  brothers
	ongo'idi		mothers			ongo’valai
1.23	contraction  of  the  stem  vowels  in  affix  combinations,  if  stem  vowels  only separated  by
	glottal stop
	la'id		earlier				koledo	time, age	kola'ido)
	va'ig		water				ovegan	watered	(ova'igan)
	momo'ug		to wash				ovogan	washed	(ovo'ugan)
1.24   contraction of the enclitic vowel with initial vowel of following pronoun
	tahakan-zekau					our giving you		(tahakan-za ikau
	tahakan-tekau					our (dual)giving you		" (-to ikau
	"-peno(peti,pelo)					giving still this (that)" (-po ino om			(iti,ilo)
	"	-keno(keti,kelo)		for this			" (-ko ino
	"	-neno(neti,nelo)		already this			" (-no ino

1.25      contraction of the infixes   -in- + -um-

if the infix -in- is used   together   with the infix -um-   they often contract to -ium-

rumikot oku	I come	riumikot oku	I came (rinumikot oku
sumavat oku	I rise	siumavat oku	I rose (sinumavat oku

1.3O  assimilation of vowels

Some of the affixes assimilate their vowels to the stem vowels, while others cause the assimilation of the stem vowels to the vowel of the affix.

1.310    the prefix vowels assimilate to the first stem vowel

The prefixes m +vowel-, k+ vowel-, p+ vowel-, have a- vowel, if prefixed to a stem with `a` in the first syllable. They have 'o' if prefixed to a stem with i, o, or u vowel in the first syllable

1.311	m + vowel- +panau   =				mamanau	to go
		tukul  =			monukul	to measure
		idu	=		mongidu	to put away
		obul	=		mongobul	to wallow
1.312	k + vowel=	kapanau		gone	kotukul	measured    koidu away  kobulwallowed
1.313 p + vowel		pamanau			making go	ponukul	making measure
		pongidu			make away	pongobul	make wallow
1.32	the  suffix -an  and  the  suffix of the  affix combination a  (o)-stem-an   cause  the  last  stem
	vowel to assimilate to a, if o
	indakod	to climb			a o + an = aaa/indakadan		ascendable
	imot	to see			i o + an = iaa/imatan		isible
	ilo	to know			o+i o + an = eaa/elaan		known

If the last stem vowels is u or i, the first stem vowel a , thenthe prefix vowel assimilate to the

high vowels		a + a i + -an    =   o o i  an
		a + a u + -an    =   o o u   an
	anit	to skin	onitan	skinned
	darun	rain	odorunan	rained onto
	hali	beyond	oholian	gone beyond
	hambil	to trespass	ohombilan	gone taken beyond
1.33	the suffixes -o   and -on		cause the penultimate syllable vowel  to  assimilate to  the suffix
	vowel	a   o + -o     = o o o    ko     a   au + -o     = o oh o			a   u + -o     = o u o
	indamo	to ask	indomoon-ku	my object of asking
	indakod	to climb	indokodon	what is to be climbed
	mindokodo	in progess of climbing
	langau	mucus	longohon	mucus (a cold)
	agazo	big	kogozoo	size
	anaru	long	konoruvo	length
1.4O	The assimilation of consonants
1.41	The unproductive prefixes in-, on-, un-, tin-, ton-, tun-, san-, son-, assimilate the final nasal
	to the point of articulation of the following stem initial consonant
	in-vagu	new	imvagu	to make new   in + vagu
	sakot	grass	insakot	to cut grass
	kakat	lift	ingkakat	to stand upright
	hopod	ten	inghopod	ten times

on-		ompizos	caterpillar
		omputul	to be on both sides
		ondiri	stick for long beans
		ongkukul	dove
un-	palad	palm (hand)	umpalad		to keep for oneself
	daliu	to change	undaliu		to ferment
	alad	wing	ungkakad		to unfold
tin-	pu'un	stem	timpuun		to beginn
	koub	downrurned	tingkoub		to lie with face to ground
ton-		tompuzung	to carry together
		tondongon	to sing funny songs
		tongkizad	to separate
tun-		vozo	to follow		tumbozo		to obey
		tuntuvad	to turnhead over heals
		tungkamang	to crawl like spider
san-		ba'ak	case	samba'ak		one case
son-		talaga	well	santalaga		one (the same)well
		ulun	person	songulun		people (collective)
1.42 if the stem initial consonant is r, the nasal is dropped
son-		ruvang	enclosure		soruvang		to enter house
tun-		turidong	vertical
ton-		torodong	straight in ground
or the   r-   initial is substituted by d,   while the nasal is retained
rangau		span of fingers	sandangau		one fingers span
ropo		span of arms	sondopo		one arm span, length of streched arms
with reduplication of the first stem syllable, the initial stem   r							or l   assimilate to the nasal of
the prefix
longoi		song	mindolongoi		to sing
raat		bad	mongindaraat		to slander

1.43 Prenasalisation of the stem initial plosives and fricatives with supposition of the voiceless plosives and fricatives by nasals of the same point of articulation

	t = n	turug	monurug	to turn
	k = ng	kuro	monguro	to ask for reason
	v = m	vatu'	mamatu'	to gravel
	s = n	su'ul	monu'ul	to pay wages
	' = ng	idu'	mongidu'	to put away
	p = m	pasi'	mamasi'	to bring to life
the voiced bilabial plosive b also follows this supposition
	b = m	babo	mamabo	to carry
		butul	momutul	to shave
1.44	Prenasalisation of prefixed forms:

nasal addition before  voiced  plosives  other  than b,   and  other  consonants  d,g,j,l,r,z

duat	mongoduat	to ask
gamit	mangagamit	to catch
hatul	mangahatul	to rule
janji	mangajanji	to agree
latang	mangalatang	to stop work
radu'	mangaradu'	to plough
zopos	mongozopos	to make wet

1.5O  The phoneme pattern order of the word stems.

1.51   the simple root word (stem) has the following phoneme pattern (c-consonant, v=vowel)

C V	C V C		valai	house	panau   to go	tukul	to measure
whereby the vowel initial stem has actually a glottal stop in front of the initial vowel
			‘idu'		away
.			‘obul		to wallow
C V C		C V C	tambang		deer
			pampang		rock
			tindal		dry land
			hintol		lame
			tangkus		run

1.52   the extended word stems (simple stem + unproductive prefix) have the following patterns

C V C + C V	C V C	timpu'un	to begin
		tompuzung	to carry together
or		obpinai	brother
C V + C V	C V C	gutika	pearl
		goromod	to complete
		koruhang	follower
		buruvid	to roll
		buribud	to drill
or		karabau	buffalo
C V + C V C	C V C	kurunsong	wavy hair
		palampag	floor
		salambat	comb

1.6O  The stress

1.61 generally the stress lies with the penultimate of the stem. It can however retract unto the antepenultimate, (from the last to the second last syllable) when prefixed

ta’ud	mana'ud	to guard
timbang	monimbang	to wage
tukul	monukul	to measure
sangkul	manangkul	to hoe
naru	anaru	long
podok	opodok	small	but opodok-po	still small
somok	osomok	near
sodu	osodu	far away
vasih	kovosihan	goodness
rikot	korikatan	place of arrival
banal	kabanaran	right (of. Malay kebenaran)
valai	kavavalazan	building

on the penultimate stressed are e.g.
tulung	monulung		to help
tabang	tumabang		to assist
ra'at	mongindaraat		to slander but ruma'at			ara'at	bad
vagat	avagat		heavy
ribau	oribau		shallow
There is also quite a diversity when stressing, even in the same stem
ara'at		bad	kara'atan		badness
mongindara'at		to slander ruma'at			to get bad
mangara'at		to make bad
tumabang		to help (assist)
atabang		assisted		katabangan		assistance
1.62   Enclitics may sometimes shift the stres s unto the ultima
opodok		small	opodok-po			still small

1.63	the prenasalized verb, substantified by an article, has the primary stress on its first syllable
	mananom		to plant	it mananom	the planter
	mana'ud		to watch	it mana'ud	the watchman
	mangagama		to work	it mangagama   the workmann
1.64	the tune of some sentences
	osodu ino pomogunan dino			far that village there / That village is far away
	sinodu- .. ino pomogunan dino			really far that village / That village is very far away
	mangagama-oku do meja			make I a table/ I make tables
	ioku-no o minangagama do meja   I then who made tables / it was I who made tables
	isai-ka o minangagama diti meja?			who made this table?
1.7O	Borrowed words
	Most borrowed words are from the Malay and English language
1.71	Borrowed words from Malay generally undergo the following changes
	y  becomes  z		Melayu	Malazu	Malay
			buayo	buazo	crocodile
	c  (phon.t')=		kayu	kazu	wood
			cuci	susi	clean
			cangkul	sangkul	hoe
			cat	saat	paint
	final r becomes l  if not suffixed
			khabar	habal	news
	pepet é  assimilates to a full vowel of the following				syllable
	pepet e + i	= o i	beli	boli	to buy
	e + e + a	= o i a	perentah	porinta	government
	e + a + u   = a a u		Melayu	Malazu	Malay
	e + e + a + a   = a a a a		kebenaran	kabanaran	right

dissimilar consonant clusters get separated by full vowels, which are similar to the full stem vowel

kerbau	karabau	water buffalo
berkat	barakat	blessing
hormat	horumat	honour

j (phon.d') retains its phonetic value, even though it occurs in borrowed words only

janji      agreement      jaga    to watch jadi     to happen  balanja    livelihood

1.72   borrowed words from English are the following

kumbani company  matusikal  motorcycle   ba'as bus     supiring    spring

sikul      school     ki'is     case

ki'is   refers to the court  case and  means today any offence worth a trial. The stem ki'is   can be

affixed to various meaningful forms as

kumi'is   oku    I get into trouble

noki'is-ku      sentenced my (my being sentenced)

oki'isan       worth of trial

poki'is        to bring before court

1.8O  The Gonsomon dialect.

Generally the Gonsomon people which live mostly in village group s under or side by side with the Rungus, are slower and less lively than the Rungus. This is also reflected in their way of speaking.

1.81	there ist one main phonetic difference between Rungus and Gonsomon. Where Rungus has
	the  phoneme"1",  Gonsomon  has  a  postpalatal  fricative  "x",  comparable  with  the"ch"in
	German Wachtel or the Scots loch
	Rungus	valai	Gonsomon		vaxai	house
		aralom			araxom	deep
		valu			vaxu	eight
		lada			xada	pepper
		ilo			ixo	that one
		Malazu			Maxazu	Malay
There is one exception kolopioi			rubber tree which both dialects pronounce the same.
1.82	some of the stem medial nasal plosive consonant clusters nd in Rungus have in Gonsomon
	the postpalatal equivalents, i.e. ngg			(X)	kolopindang    kolopinggang   belt
2.O	M O R P H O L O G Y

The Momogun language has stem morphemes, affix morphemes and non stem words, such as enclitics, conjunctions, articles and interjections.

2.1O  The stem morphemes

2.11   the simple stems

There are stems, which are in themselves substantives as they are names of things. Other stems do not occur in the mere stem form but are always affixed as e.g. qualifiers of verbs

sangkul	hoe	it sangkul	the hoe		manangkul-oku	I hoe
sigup	tobacco	it sigup	the tobacco		monigup-oku	smoke
rinding	wall	it rinding	the wall		mongorinding-oku	I make a wall
-tangkus	tumangkus-oku I run
-naru	anaru	long
numaru it kazu		the tree gets longer
2.12O compound stems (stems with unproductive prefixes)
2.121 compound stems with prefix i + nasal
sakot	grass	monginsakot-oku		I cut grass
savat	height	monginsavat-oku		I put high up
toron	stay	mintoron-oku		I live

tutun	intimate	mongintutun-oku	I recognize
vozo	follow	pemozo oku (poinbozo)		I give in
guli	return	mingguli-oku	I repeat
kakat	lift	mingkakat-oku	I stand up

The following stems have in addition a reduplication of the first stem syllable, whereby the initial

r or l is replaced by voiced plosive   d of.   1.42
-raat	bad	mongindaraat-oku	I slander
longoi	song	mindolongoi-oku	I sing
ronok	fear	mongindoronok-oku	I threaten
2.122 compound stems with prefix o + nasal
diri	oneself	ndiri	stick for climbing beans
tizan	abdomen	mogontizan-oku	I am pregnant
2.123 compoundstems with prefix  u + nasal (m, n, ng)
palad	hand (palm) mumpalad-oku		I keep for myself
daliu	change	mundaliu it kinomol	the rice wine ferments
alad	wing	mungkalad it vusak	the flower unfolds
vasih	goodness	mongumbasih-oku	I show goodness
2.124 compound stems with prefix  ti + nasal
puun	trunk	tumimpuun-oku	I begin
koub	horizontal  moningkoub-oku		I lie with face to the ground
	position
2.125 compound stems with prefix to + nasal
obpinai	brother/sister monongobpinai-oku dikau			I hold you as my brothers
piri	turn	monompiri oku	I make fire by turning a stick
2.126 compound stems with prefix tu + nasal
vozo	follow	tumbozo monumbozo oku		I obey
tuvad	turn	tumuntuvad oku	I turn head over heels

2.127    compound stems with unproductive prefix				k + vowel, assimilating to first stem vowel
ruhang	to accompany		i koruhang		the companion
		kumoruhang oku			I accompany you
varo	there is	kavaro	misingkavaro		act as if real
gangau	noisy	kogangau			noise
aso	none	kaso			none
		mamagkaso oku			I hold as non existent
2.128    compoundstems with unproductive prefix san- var- son- -m -ng -r-
anu	to take	sanganu			possess
		manansanganu			I take into possession
ruvang	enclosure	soruvang			to enter
		monoruvang oku			I visit non relatives
vozo	follow	sombozo			initate
		sumombozo			see 2,213

2.2O Productive affix-morphemes: group A prefixes.

2.21O intransitive prefixes

2.211 prefix m + stem: indicating process
-imot	mimot oku	I see
-atag	matag oku	I get better
-vozo	mozo oku	I follow
-odop	modop oku	I sleep
-ogom	mogom oku	I sit
-idu	midu it soval	the trousers come off
-udou	mudou it gula	the sugar melts
-valiu	maliu oku	I move house
2.212   prefix mu + stem: indicating state of being
valai	house	muvalai oku diti	I make, build a house now
kadai	shop	mukadai oku	I make a shop (keep a shop)
-tanom	plant	mutanom oku	I plant, I am planter
tagad	ricefield	mutagad oku	I plant hill rice
kabun	garden	mukabun oku	I am farmer
aki	grandfather	muaki oku dit NN	I am grandchild of NN (male)
odu	grandmother	muodu oku dit   NN	I am grandchild of NN (female)
-vozo	follow	movozo oku dit NN (muvozo)    I follow NN

in movozo the u-vowel of the prefix mu- assimilates to the o-vowel of the stem, because of the v-initial stem, see also 2.421 nominal affix combination pu + stem -an

2.213 infix -um- after stem initial consonant
rikot	to come	rumikot oku	I come
-handab	to burn	humandab it valai	the house burns down
-hali	to exceed	humali it sakit	the sickness gets worse
kadai	shop    kumadi oku diti  I go to the shop now
2.22O transitive prefixes
2.221    prefix  ma-  var.  mo-  +  prenasalized  substitution  or  nasal  addition  manga-				+  stem  or
mongo- + stem. The substitution of the initial plosive or fricative consonant by a nasal (if
initial stem consonant is either voiceless plosive fricative or l and   r
panau	to go	mamanau oku	I go
ta'ud	to guard	mana'ud oku	I watch
babo	to carry	mamabo oku	I carry
bubul	to mix	momubul oku dot ginazu   I mash rice
vagas	rice	mamagas oku	I   husk rice
vo'ug	to wash	momoug oku	I wash up
valiu	to move	mamaliu oku	I change position of something
vudut	to lie	momudut oku	I lie
sukung	to meassure	monukung oku	I measure
tanom	to plant	mananom  oku	I plant
tulung	to assist	monulung oku	I help
kama	to touch	mangama   oku	I   touch
kuvo	to speak ??	monguvo   oku	I speak without naming
Nasal addition before stem initial voiced plosives (excluding b), fricatives glottal stops and
the cons.h,r,l,
duat	to question	mongoduat oku	I ask
dundung	to cover	mongodundung oku	I make a shelter

gama			to make	mangagama oku	I make something
guna			to use	mongoguna oku	I use
havol			to try	mangahavol oku	I grip in the dark
hanggum			to measure	mangahanggum oku	I measure by hand full
radu			plough	mangaradu oku	I plough
ramit			to grip	mangaramit oku	I hold fast
lobong			grave	mongolobong oku	I bury
ladtak			to step	mangaladtak oku	I step onto
la'ab			broad	mangalaab oku	I broaden, enlarge
idu			to take away	mongidu   oku	I take away
ovit			to take along	mongovit oku	I bring,take with me
ada			to put away	mangada oku	I throw away
orod			to rounden	mongorod oku	I make round
ukab			to open	mongukab oku	I open up
umo			to open field	mongumo oku	I plant hill rice
zopos			wet	mongozopos oku	I make wet
zazak			to open knot	mangazazak oku	I untie knot
malun			to accuse	mangamalun oku	I accuse
navau			light	manganavau oku	I make light
jamin			to be trusty	mangajamin oku	I guarantee
2.2220	prefix pa-  var  po-  +  prenasalized  substitution as  2.221  describing  action of subject
	substitution
panau			to go	pamanau oku	I am one who goes
ta'ud			to watch	panaud oku	I am one who watches
tanom			to plant	panamon oku	I am one who plants
nasal addition
duat			to question	pongoduat oku	I am one who asks
guna			to use	pongoguna oku	I am one who uses
radu			plough	pangaradu oku	I am one who ploughs
				pangajamin oku	I am one who guarantees
2.2221	prefix pa- var. po- + ko (var.ka-) action of substituted usage
asu			dog	pokoasu	to treat as a dog
2.223O      prefix p- + vowel, assimilating to first stem vowel: indicating causative action
imot		pemot oku dot ulun		I make visible to people (show)
atag		patag oku		I put in order
odop		podop oku		I set down
ogom		pogom oku		I set down
inum		penum oku di NN		I give NN a drink
panau		papanau oku dikau		I make you go, let you go
ta'ud		pataud oku dikau		I make you a watchman
tangkus		patangkus oku dikau		I let you run
compare also. po+ stem+ on + nominal personal suffix
inum		penumon-ku ikau		I shall give you a drink
but		pinenum oku di NN		I was given a drink by NN
om		pinenum-ku it   NN		I gave NN a drink
2.2231 prefix p + u + stem indicating "master or way of" action
agai		puagai		master of adultery